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Hypnosis and Imagery To Improve Confidence and Performance For Gymnastics

This blog discusses and merges three concepts regarding the interface of mental training and sports performance:

• A science-based model of imagery (PETTLEP) where hetero-hypnosis and autogenic training are successfully incorporated

• Using mental conditioning to benefit athletic performance

• Merging these concepts to create a new training resource

Imagery, Hypnosis and Autogenic Training

Each of these disciplines/techniques are stand-alone methods for enhancing sports performance. I have incorporated them into a unique and highly successful multisensorial tool. The purpose of this article is not to go into detail about each of these techniques. Rather the focus of this blog is describing the integration of these methods into the PETTLEP model of imagery.

Hypnosis

Hypnosis is a method of focusing your mind, then using your imagination and thoughts to stir feelings and to alter your behavior and attitudes. In a sense, in hypnosis you are altering your internal world. When you change how you think, visualize, and imagine things to be, your feelings and behavior will begin to change to match.

Research using fMRI suggests some individuals are more hypnotically gifted than others; however, openness and receptivity during the process paves the way for a successful outcome. There is an elegance in the simplicity of hypnosis and the profound changes it can make.

In 35+ years, I have hypnotised well over 100,000 people. As a result, I have become acutely aware of the subtleties and nuances for successful outcomes in hypnotized subjects.

Imagery

The brain innervates our muscles when we just imagine ourselves performing. We can give ourselves extra practice in our sport by completing imagery regularly. The more vividly our imagery replicates an athletic task, the stronger our neural pathways become.

Because imagery involves the mental rehearsal of skills, scenarios, and upcoming events, it allows us to anticipate potential challenges or setbacks, and develop potential strategies for meeting or overcoming them. For these reasons, athletes who utilize regular imagery show better physical and mental readiness, better stress and energy management, and increased confidence and motivation levels. (Premier Sport Psychology, 2021).

Autogenic Training

The phenomena of mind/body self-regulation exhibited by yogis awakened the curiosity and interest of British physicians more than 200 years ago. Later, the British and other European physicians began to study the mind/body relationship. Around 1910, Dr. J. Schultz of Germany began to develop a mind-body training system called Autogenic Training (AT), (Peper,E. and Williams, E. A., Autogenic Therapy, 2020) combining hypnosis and yoga. The technique is also called self-generated or self-motivated training. "Schultz correctly identified some of the effective components of hypnotherapy and yoga and incorporated them into a method of self-regulation." (Sport Modified Autogenic Training, IndiaNetzone, 2013). To be effective, he realized that self-regulation would have to be simple. The simplicity is the secret to the technique’s success.

Autogenic training is classified as a self-hypnotic technique. Distinct from hetero-hypnosis, where trance is induced by another individual, autogenic training emphasizes a trainee's independence and gives control from the therapist to the trainee. (Autogenic training - Wikipedia)(Peper & Williams 2020). This eliminates the need for physiological feedback devices or an outer hypnotherapist. 

East V. West

Let us backtrack a little and take a look at how and why modern-day hypnosis, imagery and autogenic training practices have become more mainstream in athletic performance.

In the 1950s, Soviet space scientists explored the possibility of teaching cosmonauts to control such bodily functions, such as heart rate, temperature and muscle tension, as well as emotional reactions to stress situations such as zero gravity. The inspiration for much of these studies came from the ancient yogic arts of India and Tibet.

From the earliest days of Communism, Party leaders had favored recreation and physical training for the masses, as a way of helping workers to remain healthy and productive. They saw Olympic victories as having considerable propaganda value around the world.

This research quickly made its way into the Eastern Blocs preparation for their Olympic athletes. The architects of the soviet-bloc sports programs demonstrated, beyond any doubt, the value of a truly scientific, mind-plus-body approach to performance.

In 1956, during the Melbourne Olympics, the Soviet Union stunned the world of competitive sports by winning 98 medals, thus beating the USA by 24. What was the addition to their coaching staff to produce this feat? -- 11 hypnotherapists!

“The United States Olympic team is in greater danger of being left behind by Soviet athletes in the 1980 Olympics than any previous Olympics in history,” remarked Dr William S. Kroger (1906 -1995), neuropsychiatrist and gynecologist, who pioneered the use of hypnosis in medicine and in criminal investigations. “A great athlete, a coordinated athlete, does things automatically without worrying and letting doubt enter the mind. They build in conditioning reflexes and act without fear or anxiety. (The New York Times, Hypnosis Rated Big Help To Soviet Performances, 1977). 

“Anxiety neutralizes optimum performance,” Dr Kroger continued. “Tension and relaxation cannot coexist. If you're relaxed you get a better performance, at least mentally, and this has manifestations in the musculature.” Dr Kroger also explained athletes can learn to tap hidden assets for exceptional performance, “the hypnotist puts nothing there, but he gets the individual to rise to the highest levels he can reach. One compounds the sensory spiral of conviction.” (New York Times 1977).

Hypnosis, Imagery and Autogenic Training Today

Although the Communist block dominated mental training techniques for decades, the West has caught up. Many professional sports teams have their own sports psychologist on staff.

But to be truly effective, this type of mental preparation/integration should be introduced with age-group athletes as soon as they start training. Mental conditioning should be as routine as the amount of physical hours that athletes put in during physical preparation. Ultimately, the majority of world-class athletes are, physically, equally prepared—What separates a win from a loss is their mental preparation.

Some of my favorite research articles and personal experiences with mental training:

A number of years ago I worked with a Gymnastics club that has turned out numerous Olympiads. I was asked to work with the women's team on their most difficult apparatus, the balance beam. Using a process of hypnosis and visualization, I had them perform an inward imagined exercise of their performance. Highly trained athletes are typically very motivated to participate. They love the feeling of letting go, but still being in control! 

The faces of the gymnasts displayed emotional expressions during the hypnosis. Only one face remained relaxed, and her expression was one of serenity. Afterward, reviewing the first part of the exercise, they were asked to describe their performance. Every gymnast, except one, stated they fell off the beam. Our "lady of serenity" had performed her routine perfectly. I was unsurprised to learn that, of all the girls, she was slated for the Olympics. When I led them in the same exercise again, I told the athletes that there would be no mistakes in their routine. Now I observed many more peaceful expressions with the new instruction. In discussion after, only one athlete stated that she could not complete her exercise without falling off the beam.

Working with basketball players in 1967, Alan Richardson, Australian psychologist and author, chose three groups of students at random. None had ever practiced visualization. The first group practiced free throws every day for twenty days. The second made free throws on the first day and the twentieth day, as did the third group. But members of the third group spent 20 minutes every day visualizing free throws. "If they "missed," they "practiced" getting the next shot right." (Breakthrough Basketball, Mental Rehearsal and Visualization, 2021).

On the twentieth day, Richardson measured the percentage of improvement in each group. The group that practiced daily improved 24 percent. The second group, unsurprisingly, improved not at all. The third group, which had physically practiced no more than the second, did twenty-three percent better—almost as well as the first group! (Cohn, P., Peak Performance Sports, 2021).

In his paper on the experiment, published in Research Quarterly, Richardson wrote that the most effective visualization occurs when the visualizer feels and sees what he is doing (Richardson, A., Research Quarterly,1967). "In other words, the visualizers in the basketball experiment "felt" the ball in their hands and "heard" it bounce, in addition to "seeing" it go through the hoop." (Neason, M., Sport Psychology Today, 2012)(Richardson 1967).

In 1986, Charles Garfield, a retired world-class weightlifter, had an experience with sports scientists from East Germany and the Soviet Union. He was not in competition shape, but they taught him to relax and visualize, and to his surprise, he managed to bench press 300 pounds, just barely, which was 29 pounds above his normal 280 pounds. Then the scientists added 65 pounds an impossible 21% increase. The scientists guided Garfield into a deep state of relaxation and visualization, suddenly everything came together, and he felt a surge of strength in his body. His mind became convinced he could do it. The world around him seem to fade. With total confidence, Garfield lifted the 365pounds.

Studying the acquisition of fine motor skills, Pascual-Leone, Nguyet, Cohen,  Brasil-Neto, Cammarota, and Hallett asked Volunteers to play a simple sequence of piano notes each day for five consecutive days. Their brains were scanned each day in the region connected to the finger muscles. Another set of volunteers were, instead, asked to imagine playing the notes whilst, also, having their brains scanned each day. You can clearly see (in the brain scans) that the changes in the brain made by those who imaged playing piano are the same as in those who actually played piano. Your brain doesn’t distinguish real from imaginary! (Hamilton, D. R., 2014). 

PETTLEP 

The PETTLEP model is based on work by Jeannerod (1994; 1997)  which proposes that there are certain shared areas in the brain that are activated during both physical and imagined movements. This is defined as “functional equivalence” and is hypothesized as the means by which imagery can improve performance. (Quinton, M. BelievePerform, 2021). "Realizing the need for a theory and research-based model of imagery to help guide practitioners’ use of imagery, Holmes and Collins (2001) devised the PETTLEP model." (Swanson, G., Mental Strength Training Workbook For Athletes, 2011). 

This model is based on theory and research findings from sport psychology, cognitive psychology and neuroscience, and aims to provide practitioners with a set of practical guidelines to aid their imagery use. PETTLEP is an acronym, with each letter representing an important factor for practitioners to consider when implementing imagery interventions, as follows: Physical, Environment, Task, Timing, Learning, Emotion, Perspective. (Swanson, 2011).

You have the flexibility to personalize these imagery components. 

I have included in this section -- personal responses from gymnasts and how they relate to imagery. In the Emotion section, I have added Injury as a sub-category.

Physical

The Physical factor is arguably the most important PETTLEP component. Rather than conceptualizing imagery as something entirely different from physical practice, here imagery is seen as a physical process with measurable physiological outcomes. For optimal benefits, imagery should be as physical an experience as possible. (Swanson 2011). One obvious way of achieving this is to laden the imagery instructions with the performer’s physiological responses. Indeed, research has shown that response-laden imagery instructions are more effective than ones lacking kinesthetic cues. In other words, the Physical component of the model is directly related to the athlete’s physical responses in their own sport situation.

Other ways of making the imagery more physical include wearing the same clothes as during performance, also holding any associated implements (e.g., tennis racquet, golf club). (Quinton, 2021).

This focus is more effective when it includes all of the senses that would be engaged, and kinesthetic sensations that would be experienced, during actual performance. (Adams, Steenbergen, Lust, & Smits-Engelsman, Motor Imagery Training for Children, 2016).

• "Visual- Using your sense of sight to see pictures, images, and movies."

• "Auditory- Using your sense of hearing for listening to sounds."

• "Kinesthetic- Using your sense of touch to feel tactile sensations and proprioceptives of the movement." This area also covers the emotions, which we will talk more about later.

• Olfactory- Using your sense of smell.

• Gustatory- Using your sense of taste.

What follows are personal experiences of how gymnasts relate to the Imagery. The gymnasts’ names, where mentioned, have been changed for their privacy.

Most of the gymnasts described actually moving their bodies during imagery, while some discussed tensing certain muscles groups associated with the imaged skills/routines. One gymnast stated: 

“I would kind of feel and flex the muscles that I needed to keep my legs straight in my leaps. I would flex my quad and...if I was sitting doing that or standing, I would usually point my toes or I would be squeezing the muscle that needed to be squeezed during that skill.”

Other gymnasts indicated that using body movements with imagery made the experience more real.

 “So, I am like putting my body in the position I was supposed to be in and also feeling my muscles, like squeezing my muscles like they were active, like they were doing the skill—-for me, that just made it more real.”

Another described how imaging prior to her vault gave her more confidence. 

“For me visualizing my vault and the different movements from start to finish basically made me feel like there was less room for error when I was performing my vault...almost as if my success for the vault was dependent on how well I visualized it. Therefore, since I did know what my body was supposed to be doing and I could picture it in my head what it was supposed to look like, it was easy for me to then actually put it into the move when I did it.”

VZ indicated how rehearsing body movements assisted her in preparing for performance. “When I actually take the time to visualize the movements and know what I want to do on the events, I listen to my mind, and it helps me do the routine the way I want to do it.” 

When describing what body movements that they actually imaged, these gymnasts provided detailed descriptions of going through whole routines.

For example, RY described imaging the body movements associated with her beam routine

“With beam most of it is dance. I'll start out going through my dance, and then when I get to a skill, I kind of visualize how I feel and like what I would think it would look like, and just go step by step— I set up for a backhand spring layout, and I go. I can see my arms swinging down, going backwards, moving up over my head, and just when I lay in the layout, just staying straight, keeping my hips straight and walking through——just going through more dance, and just my jumps, and the way, how I would set them so that I'm not a little bit off the beam and I'm more squared so that I'm able to complete it— and then just finishing my routine and sticking my dismount.” 

One gymnast described imaging her entire bar routine: 

“I close my eyes and do kip, cast, clear hip, Shaposhnikova, swing back, feet over, kip, lean forward, cast, handstand, toe shoot. And like I just do everything in my head, and then I picture the giant, the full-twisting release move and the dismount stuck in.”

JX talked about going through the skill parts associated with her floor routine: 

“I mainly image the skill parts of my floor...like for the tumbling, for jumps and leaps and stuff. So, I would kind of like picture my dancing, but it is not really you know... perfect, and then I would go into a certain pass or go into a perfect jump.”

Another current gymnast described imaging parts of her vault routine:

 “I usually go through the vault you know a couple of times in my head... I would picture the vault, you know, maybe not even with the whole run... just the actual – hitting the springboard, pushing off the vault, landing on my feet, that whole thing.” 

Some of the gymnasts worried that if they did not imagine their skills/routines perfectly, the imperfection could transfer to their actual performance. One gymnast commented: 

“Well, because when I wobble – when I imagine it, I feel like if I imagine it that way, then that’s how I’m going to perform it. So, if I can make it perfect in my head... then I will make it perfect on the beam.” 

“I would visualize myself doing it correctly (the bar routine) and the more I could visualize it...the more I could think about it... so it was like kind of creating a habit within myself and like when I would actually go. I could almost tell like the habit was being built.”

Focusing on Critical Areas

One gymnast added that she focused on critical areas that her coach pointed out:

 “Coaches would tell me during practice to make sure that you’re setting or keeping your chin in, so in my imagery I would focus on that... I would watch myself keep my chin in a neutral position as I took off for my skill— we always worked on landings, and I had quite a bit of trouble with that so watching myself really absorb the landing...imagery helped me with those areas I need to work on.

“I would visualize doing my bar routine correctly, really think about it——so it was like kind of creating a habit within myself— I could almost feel like the habit was being built.”

An example of how to do this is to remember three or four successful routines in your gymnastics career. Think of a meet when you were on and hit all your routines. Or you can go back to routines from different meets or from practice that felt like your best.

Note: you can also create a filmed highlight reel where you edit together various videos of routines you've done and watch them over and over for a boost of confidence. This is not an imagery exercise, but it's a great thing to do to help you tap into your feelings more.

For example, let's say you fell on beam during a meet, you can create a new visual of yourself doing your routine without the fall. This should happen soon after the meet, so your body and mind start to relate your new imagery experience with the beam as opposed to holding on to the experience of the fall on the beam.

In summary, feeling the skill referred to these gymnasts’ experiences of using their body during their imagery and feeling the movements in the absence of physical motion. For them, feeling the skill helped in replicating the feel of the actual movements and made their imagery experience more real, which assisted their imagery and their actual experience with rhythm and timing. Irrespective of whether these gymnasts incorporated body motion or not, feeling the skill was an integral part of their overall imagery experience.

Environment

This relates to the place where the imagery is performed—this should be as similar as possible to the performance environment. (Quinton 2021). If possible, watch videos of the competition venue to familiarize yourself with it. 

If imagery scripts are being employed, they should also include descriptions of the athlete’s individual responses to the environment, as opposed to just describing the environmental stimuli. (Quinton 2021).

How do you feel differently when you are performing at your own venue as opposed to a competition venue—  Observe how those feelings differ.

“I’m imagining me presenting to the judge, and my heart rate’s going up, and I’m really nervous, but at the same time I’m confident, and I know I can do what I do in my practice... And, so, the crowd’s there, and I got a floor routine in the background with the music coming on. It’s a quad meet, and it’s loud, and people are yelling and cheering and clapping, and I see myself going through my routine in those conditions.”

Another example of how to enhance the environmental cues into one’s imagery is described in this study (Smith, Wright & Cantwell, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sports, 2008). In this example, golfers image their bunker shots whilst standing in a tray of sand. The golfers liked the fact that they could feel their golf shoes contacting the sand and that their posture was identical to that adopted in the actual bunker. This was very effective in enhancing bunker shot performance. (Munroe-Chandler, K. J., & Guerrero, M. D., 2016). Adapt this to the gymnast performance environment.

Task

"The Task component is an important factor, as the imagined task needs to be closely matched to the actual task." (Quinton 2021).

This focus is on the thoughts and feelings and actions done during the performance.

The content of the imagery should be appropriate to the skill level and the personal preferences of the athlete. For example, given that the attentional focus of athletes in different sports and at different performance levels may differ in a number of ways, the content of the imagery needs to be specific to each performer. (Smith, D., Enhancing Sports Performance Using PETTLEP Imagery, 2010). When planning/scripting the imagery intervention, the trainer, hypnotist, (or oneself) will find it useful to quiz the athlete regarding his or her focus of attention during performance beforehand.

Ask the athlete to image details relevant to the task (e.g., attention demands) and to image at the appropriate level of expertise for the performer. Novice gymnasts should avoid imagining as an elite level gymnast, because this is not as functionally equivalent to their current experience. Naturally, as their skill progresses, the individual will progress their imagery too. This is addressed below in the Learning task of PETTLEP. 

Timing

Currently, the concept used for the timing aspect of PETTLEP is to perform imagery in real-time wherever possible. Timing is often crucial to the successful execution of sports skills. However, more research is needed on the possible uses of slow-motion imagery. There are some interesting possibilities yet to be studied, such as whether slow-motion imagery could be useful in correcting errors in imagery of the form-based skills. (Smith 2010).

Learning

As you master your skill, new imagery scripts will be needed.

The imagery intervention should not just be updated in terms of changes in skill level, but also changes in psychological states such as confidence and motivation. (Wakefield, C. and Smith, D., Perfecting practice: Applying the PETTLEP model of motor imagery, 2012). 

In a recently completed study examining the effects of imagery on muscle strength, it was found that regularly updating imagery content to reflect the progress participants made – was very successful in enhancing performance. Also, without such updating, the imagery will very quickly cease to effectively replicate real life. For instance, changes in physical condition, skill level and physical fitness can all be incorporated into the imagery. (Swanson 2011).

Emotion 

The component “Emotion” relates to the fact that competitive sport is an emotion-laden experience. Therefore, for imagery to be realistic, the emotions felt during performance should also be mentally recreated during imagery practice.

For example, the possible excitement the performer feels during performance should be an important part of the imagery experience. (Quinton 2021). Of course, care should be taken to ensure that all of the emotions felt during imagery are positive. 

Dealing with Injury

Several gymnasts described how injuries had limited their ability to physically practice. In these situations, the gymnasts used imagery as a substitute for practice. Using imagery while injured helped these gymnasts prepare for when they would actually perform again.

KW stated that imaging skills, while injured, helped to prepare her for upcoming performances: 

“I found that even if I didn’t have the opportunity to practice my skills, if I visualized them, I was right back where I left off because of the...the practice that I have done in my head...I was really successful in being able to compete at the level that I wanted with very, very minimal physical practice. I had done the mental practice to back it up.”

 JV summarized the importance of using imagery while injured 

“I have been injured quite a lot throughout my career and sometimes I would just sit there and visualize my routines when I could not physically do them.” 

Dealing with injuries using imagery became an important aspect of preparing for movement for these gymnasts. 

Calming nerves is an important aspect of mental preparation. 

Gymnasts describe using imagery to deal with any anticipatory anxiety or fears that they had about performing. They realized that if they could image the skills/routines successfully then there was nothing to be nervous about.

When one gymnast was asked to share what stood out for her in her imagery use, she replied, 

“Well, I just think that it makes things less overwhelming.”

Another responded similarly saying, “I used it as a tool to make me calm— right before the skill, to collect my thoughts and to focus on whatever I was doing. For example, I would just see myself vault and land and salute like I had already done it. So, no problem. It was nothing to get nervous about, just go do it now.” 

MU also described how imagery allowed her to stop worrying: 

 “It also calmed my nerves, I would see myself doing it and that reminded me to stop worrying about what could happen— living in the moment of that routine and that skill and enjoying it— not making it business-like...but just having fun with it.”

In response to a follow-up question, she talked about how she used imagery to deal with the worry of trying a new skill,  “I would not try a new skill until I could perfectly tell in my head what exactly was going to happen— where my body was supposed to be and that helped a lot with fear.”

For these gymnasts, imagery acted as a calming mechanism when they were afraid or nervous. 

MR may have summed up this theme the best when she stated, “I would have been a basket case I think, to be honest —without doing visualization.” 

Building Confidence

All of the gymnasts acknowledged that imagery allowed them to experience a greater sense of confidence. Confidence was often a by-product of imaging correct performances or rehearsing skills repetitively.

“The more imagery I did, the more successful and confident I became–—to do it just by seeing it go right in my head… if I fell a hundred times in my warm-up, it didn’t bother me because when I did it in my head, it was perfect, and I knew I could do it. So just as I – I gained more confidence in my routines and my skills like my mental aspects, really, really grew.” 

A large number of the gymnasts talked about using imagery for confidence right before performing a routine. VU provided an example of how imagery enhanced her confidence before her beam routine. 

“I can see myself doing it, I believe in myself that I can actually do it, so I know I can do it no matter what.”

Another gymnast, who experienced several injuries throughout her career, talked about how imagery gave her confidence when she began training again.  

“Imagery also helped me be more confident when I started redoing skills.” 

NZ described the relationship between imagery and confidence when she stated, “If you’re using imagery, you’re going to be prepared mentally for that success – And that confidence, it’s going to come naturally because you’ve done it over and over and over— I mean you have to put in the work, but imagining it the way you trained it, your confidence gets better.” 

Perspective

Finally, the Perspective component refers to whether the athlete completes the imagery from an internal (first person) perspective, or an external (third person) perspective. Whilst the paradigm of functional equivalence would suggest that an internal perspective would be most beneficial, research has shown that for certain tasks an external perspective is preferable. (Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity).  More advanced performers are able to switch from one perspective to another.  When doing this, gain advantages from using both perspectives. 

Also, the issue of individual preference is absolutely crucial for successful interventions. Whilst it may be theoretically desirable, for instance, to adopt an internal visual perspective in many cases, some athletes may find internal imagery difficult or just prefer external imagery. (Smith 2010). In such cases, it is always preferable to accommodate the athlete’s wishes as far as possible so that the athlete is comfortable with what he or she is being asked to do.

Conclusion

Just like developing any new skill, imagery requires practice. It requires commitment and should become a part of daily routine. Generally, imagery works best when you’re relaxed. When relaxed, you can focus more easily on a positive image. When learning it can help to practice visualization right before you go to sleep at night, because you are likely to be relaxed and able to focus wholly on this task. (Lefkovits, McDuff, & Morgan Mental Toughness Training Manual for Gymnastics).

For the most part, imagery is optimal when used in real-time. This may be difficult to do at first. Many gymnasts say that when they begin to try to visualize skills or routines, they can only see themselves doing the skills poorly or falling. If this happens, it is helpful to slow down the images until you can see or feel the skill being done well. (Lefkovits et al). Then speed it up little by little until you can see it in real-time. "Slowing down the images can also be useful to help analyze certain techniques or make specific corrections." (Lefkovits et al). Remember that you have control over all these images.

Depending on your own style, you will tend to imagine scenes from inside yourself, or from outside as if watching a performance on a screen. (Lefkovits et al). Be able to do both is ideal. So, try practicing imagery in steps. Being able to use both internal and external perspectives is useful because it allows you to translate ideal performance to your own performance. (Lefkovits et al). Although you will tend to use one form over another, practice using both internal and external perspectives as much as possible.

Imagery is more than just visualization. Try using your sense of smell, hearing, touch, and even taste. This works best when you see what you would see, feel what you would feel, hear what you’d hear, and even taste what you would taste. The object is to get the sensation as true-to-life as possible. This means that if you are visualizing for a specific competition, picture yourself in the meet situation in the actual venue in which you’ll be competing. (Lefkovits et al).

Athletes from a wide range of sports have found imagery to be extremely valuable in enhancing performance. It is important to recognize that it works best when combined with actual practice of the skill. (Lefkovits et al). Imagery is not a replacement for regular gymnastics practice, rather, it is an enrichment of sports practice and performance.

The Gymnastic Mind Game

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